美国通信历史和技术问答题和准则

Paper代写范文:“美国通信历史和技术问答题和准则”，这篇论文主要描述的是在现如今高速发展的通信技术领域当中，技术是非常核心的关键性因素，新技术的出现往往能够推动社会各个层面的发展，根据技术决定论所讲，技术在任何领域当中都是变革的核心，并举例了第一次世界大战和电影行业的发展来证明这一理论。

What is technological determinism? Analyze the claims of a technologically determinist approach with reference to examples of a particular communication technology studied in this course (i.e. sound technology, photography or print).

Introduction

Technological determinism argues that in the development process of the field of communication technology, technology is a decisive factor, coupled with the power of the great scientists and engineers (Murphie and Potts, 2003). On the contrary, through the research on the film, television production process, Winston (1998) found that technology of course plays a significant role, but the emergence of new technologies is the result of the factors in social life, such as political, economic, financial, organizational, and cultural aspects, he calls this as "cultural determinism." He regards this complex of social and cultural factors as the decisive factor of new technologies.

This essay presents two interrelated issues: (1) how is the technology update in the field of mass communication produced? (2) what the impact of technology on mass media content and consequences? These two issues are linked, as these two issues discussed the relationship between technology and communication processes.

Narrative of technological determinism (A)

Williams (2003) wrote: technological determinism is very orthodox views on the nature of social change with giant energy giant in the moment. The internal inevitable process of technological research and development leads to the generation of new technologies, such research and development determine the social change and the basic situation of progress, especially the "progress" is the history to create inventions of modern society. The impact of technology, whether direct or indirect, foreseeable or unforeseeable, is to promote the development of history.

Technological determinism in its simplest form explains that the necessarily inherent in research and development process is the chronological biography of the scientists and engineers (Misa, 1994). This narrative believes that the impact of technological development on society is due to the "great man forward" (excluding women and non-whites). Here, a typical example is the brief history of film, which was written because of "great men forward."

The history lack of the great figures is not only eager to create a hero, and another key factor is the absolute insistence of the west-centered theory (Smith and Marx, 1994). For example, the camera did not begin Della Potter, but the Arab astronomers at least 300 years ago, the Chinese in 121 BC there was a projected image. It reminds us that, even if the slide technique invented by the Europe was also learned from China by the Jesuits, Germany Cookie has nothing to do with this. Even without these, Della Potter more than a century before the Italian, may have a camera.

The errors of technological determinism on the innovative technologies of "Great man" can not be corrected just by deciding to write more easily understanding history (Leonardi and Jackson, 2004). This technological development is virtually impossible to explain how to generate technological change, but can only tell us when to produce. Only useful explanation about how technological change occurs is because of their wisdom, those "great men" think the technology.

Narrative of technological determinism (B

Film history regards the technical development as the inevitable result of scientific progress, is one of the outcomes by the accumulation of the knowledge of Western culture. This description reminds us that the independent camera, lens and slide can be made with in a slide projector. Then, the inevitable convergence of slide projectors and photos creates the film art.

Advent of sound film provides us with another example. Each spate of major technical events automatically triggers the next technological innovation, and each one is subject to the external factors and delay, such as World War I and industrial inertia, but finally ended in victory for the technology (Ceruzzi, 2005). Why in a particular time will generate technological change, from which to find important clues of technological change is a very complex issue. The materials and scientific knowledge needed for technological progress have been mastered, but the development of technical update did not occur, film history in this area is a good example.

So, we began to focus on things that affect the technology rather than technology, such as the First World War, the film industry's attitude. In the technological determinist view these are small things, but in the cultural determinist view these external factors are essential

Case study

We use the view of economic history to see the use of sound in the movie and draw any conclusions by the comparison with the technological determinism. In this case, the major players (referring to participate in technological change) turn into the companies, but not a large company, the use of sound films is conducted between the companies.

In the mid-1920s, Warner Bros. is a small studio, which expands the company's operations by the loans from the Bank of New York, Goldman Sachs and other companies, and the money is mainly used for the construction of the cinema (Lewis, 2001). Warner's biggest competitor is the vertical enterprise that can make movies and have movie theaters. The studio has a series of cinemas, so the production of the film came out and has a large market. While those studios without their own cinemas are in very bad situation when releasing their filmed movies.

The changes in the invested funds in the film industry make the emergence of sound film possible. Such as the Warner, after intense internal debate, has the final decision up some adventure in career: an attempt to sound film to improve the company's market share. But it is not enough to just have a series of movie theaters, to attract viewers it has to offer something different.

Warner shows a wide variety of films, which successfully proves that the audiences are welcome sound film (Langer, 1992). Fox, another struggling rival company with five major film companies, also proves that sound news film is popular with viewers.

The result of the challenge is that the five major record companies agreed to adopt a common system to show movies with sound. The sound film technology they agreed with is the most complex and expensive technology, but the five major companies already agreed and this technology has become the industry standard for film. In fact, this industry standard is used to prevent further forward the development of Warner and Fox, they two had used with  slightly different versions of the five major companies, Warner and Fox have finally accepted the standard (Allen and Gomery, 1985).

The five major companies’ sound system standard now continues to be used. The narrative of technological determinism and case there are many different descriptions on the development of technology. In individual case, the most critical stage for the development of sound film is some time before being used, and in the narrative of technological determinism, this stage is only seen as the gap period, and is the suspension period for the final victory of technology. In this case, this period is the period of struggling, it not only determines the pace of technology adoption, but also decides to adopt the form. This effort began in Warner, then spread in the Warner and its competitors, to maximize profits and to be with specific control and well accepted technology solutions (Griffin, 2003).

Economy is a key factor rather than the result of things. Case assumptions for technology development is largely due to the company and the market, the company's motivation will often affect the final decision. There are two issues, namely, technological innovation is not always the pursuit of profit by the company, the case very well explains the production of film with sound, but makes we still do not understand the Arabs, Della Porter, Cookie and others why not create a movie. Second, many innovations are for the protection of the company, preservation of existing market, not for profit to create new products and services. Bell Labs in this area is a typical example, which was established to protect a telephone monopoly - AT & T free of the impact of new technologies, especially radio communication.

At this point, we need to go beyond the economic view of cultural determinism, to see something more powerful argument. The central point of this demonstration is that the communication of technological innovation can all be considered a series of events occurred in technology, but the impact and the affected areas are the pure science and the social events. This model must be more complex, because the society affects the science, and science affects the technology again.

Conclusion

In all, technological determinist view is that in the face of media technology, the people are relatively powerless, just like the consumers, they have neither thought nor self-protection. On the contrary, cultural determinist view is to give people the power, by paying attention to this fact – the society always determines the technological development, this view gives us the power to assess the media technology. This shows us why the theory is important, the theory can promote or hinder our understanding of the world, without the understanding of the world, we can not move, so the theory is essential to action.

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